Making Small Pieces of Lumber Larger Again

Wood that has been candy into beams and planks

The harbor of Bellingham, Washington, filled with logs, 1972

Lumber, as well known equally timber, is woods that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of woods production. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes merely has many other uses as well.

Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more than of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for article of furniture-making, and manufacture of other items requiring cutting and shaping. It is available in many species, including hardwoods and softwoods, such equally white pine and red pine, because of their depression cost.^[1]

Finished lumber is supplied in standard sizes, mostly for the structure manufacture – primarily softwood, from coniferous species, including pino, fir and bandbox (collectively spruce-pino-fir), cedar, and hemlock, but also some hardwood, for loftier-grade flooring. Information technology is more unremarkably fabricated from softwood than hardwoods, and 80% of lumber comes from softwood.^[2]

Terminology [edit]

In the United States and Canada, milled boards are called lumber, while timber describes standing or felled copse.^[3]

In dissimilarity, in Britain, many other Commonwealth nations and Ireland, the term timber is used in both senses. (The word lumber is rarely used in relation to wood and has several other meanings.)

Re-manufactured lumber [edit]

Re-manufactured lumber is the event of secondary or third processing of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it refers to lumber cutting for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not ordinarily processed by a master sawmill.

Re-sawing is the splitting of 25 by 300 millimetres (1 past 12 in) hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of total-length boards. For instance, splitting a 3-metre (10 ft) long 50 by 100 mm (two past 4 in) into ii 25 past 100 mm (i by 4 in) of the same length is considered re-sawing.

Plastic lumber [edit]

Structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been strongly opposed by the forestry industry.^[iv] Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its force, durability, and fire resistance.^[five] Plastic fiberglass structural lumber can have a "class 1 flame spread rating of 25 or less, when tested in accordance with ASTM standard E 84," which means information technology burns more than slowly than well-nigh all treated wood lumber.^[vi]

History [edit]

This section needs expansion. You tin can help by calculation to it. (Nov 2021)

Conversion of woods logs [edit]

Logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with irregular grain and large knots, to exist used and is more economical. There are various types of sawing:

Plain sawn (apartment sawn, through and through, bastard sawn) – A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log and the grain runs beyond the width of the boards.
Quarter sawn and rift sawn – These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn and then the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides (not edges) of the lumber.
Boxed heart – The pith remains inside the piece with some allowance for exposure.
Heart middle – the centre cadre of a log.
Free of middle centre (FOHC) – A side-cut timber without whatsoever pith.
Gratuitous of knots (FOK) – No knots are present.

Dimensional lumber [edit]

A common 50 past 100 mm (2 past 4 in) lath

Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, often specified in millimetres or inches. Carpenters extensively utilize dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4 (pictured) (also ii-by-four and other variants, such as 4-by-2 in Australia, New Zealand, and the Britain), two×6, and iv×iv. The length of a board is ordinarily specified separately from the width and depth. It is thus possible to find 2×4s that are four, 8, and twelve feet in length. In Canada and the United States, the standard lengths of lumber are 6, 8, ten, 12, 14, 16, 18, twenty, 22 and 24 anxiety (1.8, 2.4, three.0, three.vii, 4.3, 4.9, 5.5, vi.1, 6.7 and seven.3 thou). For wall framing, precut "stud" lengths are available, and are normally used. For ceilings heights of 8, 9 or 10 feet (2.4, two.7 or 3.0 1000), studs are available in 92+ v⁄viii inches (2.35 one thousand), 104+ five⁄8 inches (ii.66 m), and 116+ 5⁄eight inches (2.96 thou)^{[ citation needed ]}.

North American softwoods [edit]

The length of a unit of measurement of dimensional lumber is limited by the summit and girth of the tree it is milled from. In general the maximum length is 24 ft (7.32 g). Engineered wood products, manufactured by binding the strands, particles, fibers, or veneers of woods, together with adhesives, to form composite materials, offering more flexibility and greater structural strength than typical wood building materials.^[seven]

Pre-cutting studs relieve a framer much time, considering they are pre-cutting past the manufacturer for utilise in 8-, 9-, and 10-foot ceiling applications, which means the manufacturer has removed a few inches or centimetres of the piece to allow for the sill plate and the double elevation plate with no boosted sizing necessary.

In the Americas, ii-bys (2×4s, 2×6s, 2×8s, 2×10s, and ii×12s), named for traditional board thickness in inches, along with the 4×4 (89 mm × 89 mm), are common lumber sizes used in modern structure. They are the basic building blocks for such common structures as balloon-frame or platform-frame housing. Dimensional lumber made from softwood is typically used for construction, while hardwood boards are more usually used for making cabinets or furniture.

Lumber'south nominal dimensions are larger than the actual standard dimensions of finished lumber. Historically, the nominal dimensions were the size of the dark-green (not stale), rough (unfinished) boards that eventually became smaller finished lumber through drying and planing (to polish the wood). Today, the standards specify the final finished dimensions and the mill cuts the logs to whatever size it needs to achieve those terminal dimensions. Typically, that rough cut is smaller than the nominal dimensions because modernistic technology makes it possible to use the logs more efficiently. For example, a "two×4" board historically started out as a green, crude lath actually 2 past 4 inches (51 mm × 102 mm). After drying and planing, it would exist smaller by a nonstandard amount. Today, a "2×4" lath starts out as something smaller than 2 inches by four inches and non specified by standards, and after drying and planing is minimally 1+ ane⁄2 by iii+ i⁄2 inches (38 mm × 89 mm).^[eight]

Northward American softwood dimensional lumber sizes
Nominal	Actual		Nominal	Actual		Nominal	Actual		Nominal	Actual		Nominal	Actual
inches	inches	mm	inches	inches	mm	inches	inches	mm	inches	inches	mm	inches	inches	mm
ane × 2	3⁄4 ×i+ one⁄two	xix × 38	2 × 2	1+ i⁄2 ×1+ 1⁄2	38 × 38
1 × 3	3⁄4 ×2+ one⁄two	19 × 64	2 × 3	i+ 1⁄2 ×2+ 1⁄ii	38 × 64
1 × 4	three⁄4 ×3+ 1⁄2	19 × 89	ii × 4	1+ 1⁄2 ×3+ 1⁄2	38 × 89	4 × 4	3+ ane⁄2 ×3+ 1⁄2	89 × 89
1 × five	iii⁄4 ×4+ 1⁄ii	19 × 114
1 × 6	three⁄4 ×five+ ane⁄ii	xix × 140	2 × 6	one+ 1⁄2 ×5+ 1⁄2	38 × 140	4 × 6	3+ 1⁄2 ×5+ 1⁄2	89 × 140	half dozen × 6	five+ 1⁄2 ×5+ one⁄two	140 × 140
1 × 8	3⁄4 ×vii+ one⁄4	xix × 184	two × 8	1+ 1⁄2 ×7+ 1⁄iv	38 × 184	four × 8	iii+ one⁄2 ×7+ ane⁄iv	89 × 184				8 × 8	7+ i⁄ii ×7+ 1⁄2	191 × 191
1 × 10	3⁄4 ×9+ 1⁄4	nineteen × 235	two × ten	1+ ane⁄two ×nine+ 1⁄4	38 × 235
1 × 12	3⁄iv ×11+ ane⁄4	xix × 286	two × 12	1+ ane⁄ii ×11+ i⁄4	38 × 286

Every bit previously noted, less wood is needed to produce a given finished size than when standards called for the green lumber to be the full nominal dimension. Nevertheless, even the dimensions for finished lumber of a given nominal size take changed over fourth dimension. In 1910, a typical finished 1-inch (25 mm) board was thirteen⁄xvi in (21 mm). In 1928, that was reduced past four%, and yet again by 4% in 1956. In 1961, at a meeting in Scottsdale, Arizona, the Committee on Class Simplification and Standardization agreed to what is now the current U.S. standard: in part, the dressed size of a one-inch (nominal) board was fixed at 3⁄4 inch; while the dressed size of ii inch (nominal) lumber was reduced from 1+ 5⁄viii inch to the electric current 1+ 1⁄2 inch.^[9]

Dimensional lumber is available in green, unfinished country, and for that kind of lumber, the nominal dimensions are the actual dimensions.

Grades and standards [edit]

The longest plank in the world (2002) is in Poland and measures 36.83 metres (nigh 120 ft 10 in) long.

Individual pieces of lumber exhibit a wide range in quality and appearance with respect to knots, slope of grain, shakes and other natural characteristics. Therefore, they vary considerably in forcefulness, utility, and value.

The move to ready national standards for lumber in the United States began with the publication of the American Lumber Standard in 1924, which set specifications for lumber dimensions, course, and moisture content; information technology also developed inspection and accreditation programs. These standards have changed over the years to meet the changing needs of manufacturers and distributors, with the goal of keeping lumber competitive with other structure products. Electric current standards are set by the American Lumber Standard Commission, appointed by the U.S. Secretarial assistant of Commerce.^[10]

Design values for nigh species and grades of visually graded structural products are determined in accord with ASTM standards, which consider the effect of strength reducing characteristics, load duration, rubber, and other influencing factors. The applicable standards are based on results of tests conducted in cooperation with the USDA Woods Products Laboratory. Design Values for Forest Construction, which is a supplement to the ANSI/AF&PA National Design Specification® for Woods Construction, provides these lumber design values, which are recognized by the model building codes.^[xi]

Canada has grading rules that maintain a standard amongst mills manufacturing similar woods to clinch customers of uniform quality. Grades standardize the quality of lumber at different levels and are based on moisture content, size, and manufacture at the time of grading, shipping, and unloading by the buyer. The National Lumber Grades Authority (NLGA)^[12] is responsible for writing, interpreting and maintaining Canadian lumber grading rules and standards. The Canadian Lumber Standards Accreditation Lath (CLSAB)^[13] monitors the quality of Canada's lumber grading and identification system.

Attempts to maintain lumber quality over time have been challenged by historical changes in the timber resources of the Us – from the tiresome-growing virgin forests common over a century ago to the fast-growing plantations at present common in today's commercial forests. Resulting declines in lumber quality have been of business organization to both the lumber manufacture and consumers and take caused increased employ of alternative structure products.^[14] ^[xv]

Machine stress-rated and machine-evaluated lumber are readily available for end-uses where high strength is critical, such every bit trusses, rafters, laminating stock, I-beams and spider web joints. Car grading measures a feature such every bit stiffness or density that correlates with the structural backdrop of involvement, such as bending forcefulness. The outcome is a more precise agreement of the force of each piece of lumber than is possible with visually graded lumber, which allows designers to use full-design strength and avoid overbuilding.^[16]

In Europe, strength grading of rectangular sawn timber (both softwood and hardwood) is done according to EN-14081 ^[17] and commonly sorted into classes defined by EN-338. For softwoods, the mutual classes are (in increasing strength) C16, C18, C24, and C30. There are likewise classes specifically for hardwoods and those in most mutual employ (in increasing forcefulness) are D24, D30, D40, D50, D60, and D70. For these classes, the number refers to the required 5th percentile bending forcefulness in newtons per foursquare millimetre. There are other strength classes, including T-classes based on tension intended for use in glulam.

C14, used for scaffolding and formwork
C16 and C24, general construction
C30, prefab roof trusses and where blueprint requires somewhat stronger joists than C24 can offer. TR26 is also a common trussed rafter strength class in long standing employ in the UK.^[xviii] ^[19]
C40, usually seen in glulam

Grading rules for African and South American sawn timber have been developed by ATIBT^[20] co-ordinate to the rules of the Sciages Avivés Tropicaux Africains (SATA) and is based on clear cuttings – established by the percent of the clear surface.^[21]

North American hardwoods [edit]

In North America, market practices for dimensional lumber made from hardwoods^[a] varies significantly from the regularized standardized 'dimension lumber' sizes used for sales and specification of softwoods – hardwood boards are often sold totally crude cut,^[b] or auto planed only on the two (broader) face sides. When hardwood boards are also supplied with planed faces, it is usually both past random widths of a specified thickness (normally matching milling of softwood dimensional lumbers) and somewhat random lengths. But besides those older (traditional and normal) situations, in recent years some product lines have been widened to also market boards in standard stock sizes; these usually retail in large-box stores and using only a relatively minor set of specified lengths;^[c] in all cases hardwoods are sold to the consumer by the board-foot (144 cubic inches or 2,360 cubic centimetres), whereas that measure is not used for softwoods at the retailer (to the cognizance of the buyer).^[d]

N American hardwood dimensional lumber sizes
Nominal (crude-sawn size)	S1S (surfaced on one side)	S2S (surfaced on 2 sides)
one⁄2 in	iii⁄8 in (9.5 mm)	5⁄16 in (7.9 mm)
5⁄8 in	ane⁄ii in (13 mm)	seven⁄16 in (xi mm)
3⁄4 in	5⁄viii in (16 mm)	9⁄16 in (14 mm)
i in or 4⁄four in	7⁄8 in (22 mm)	13⁄16 in (21 mm)
one+ 1⁄4 in or 5⁄4 in	1+ i⁄viii in (29 mm)	1+ 1⁄16 in (27 mm)
1+ 1⁄2 in or six⁄4 in	1+ 3⁄viii in (35 mm)	1+ 5⁄16 in (33 mm)
ii in or 8⁄4 in	ane+ 13⁄sixteen in (46 mm)	i+ 3⁄4 inches (44 mm)
iii in or 12⁄4 in	2+ 13⁄16 in (71 mm)	two+ 3⁄4 in (lxx mm)
4 in or 16⁄4 in	3+ thirteen⁄16 in (97 mm)	3+ 3⁄4 in (95 mm)

Also in Northward America, hardwood lumber is commonly sold in a "quarter" system, when referring to thickness; 4/iv (iv quarter) refers to a 1-inch-thick (25 mm) board, 8/4 (8 quarter) is a 2-inch-thick (51 mm) lath, etc. This "quarter" system is rarely used for softwood lumber; although softwood decking is sometimes sold every bit five/four, even though information technology is actually one-inch thick (from milling 1⁄8 in or 3.2 mm off each side in a motorized planing pace of product). The "quarter" system of reference is a traditional North American lumber industry nomenclature used specifically to signal the thickness of rough sawn hardwood lumber.

In crude-sawn lumber it immediately clarifies that the lumber is non yet milled, fugitive confusion with milled dimension lumber which is measured equally actual thickness after machining. Examples – 3⁄iv -inch, nineteen mm, or 1x. In recent years^{[ when? ]} architects, designers, and builders have begun to apply the "quarter" arrangement in specifications as a vogue of insider cognition, though the materials beingness specified are finished lumber, thus conflating the separate systems and causing confusion.

Hardwoods cutting for furniture are cut in the fall and wintertime, after the sap has stopped running in the trees. If hardwoods are cutting in the spring or summertime the sap ruins the natural color of the timber and decreases the value of the timber for furniture.

Engineered lumber [edit]

Engineered lumber is lumber created by a manufacturer and designed for a certain structural purpose. The main categories of engineered lumber are:^[22]

Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) – LVL comes in 1+ 3⁄4 inch thicknesses with depths such every bit 9+ ane⁄2 , 11+ 7⁄8 , 14, xvi, eighteen, and 24 inches, and are often doubled or tripled upwards. They role equally beams to provide support over large spans, such equally removed support walls and garage door openings, places where dimensional lumber is insufficient, and likewise in areas where a heavy load is bearing from a floor, wall or roof above on a somewhat short span where dimensional lumber is impractical. This blazon of lumber is compromised if it is altered by holes or notches anywhere within the span or at the ends, but nails tin be driven into it wherever necessary to ballast the beam or to add hangers for I-joists or dimensional lumber joists that end at an LVL beam.
Wooden I-joists – sometimes called "TJI", "Trus Joists" or "BCI", all of which are brands of wooden I-joists, they are used for flooring joists on upper floors and too in first flooring conventional foundation construction on piers every bit opposed to slab floor structure. They are engineered for long spans and are doubled up in places where a wall volition be aligned over them, and sometimes tripled where heavy roof-loaded support walls are placed above them. They consist of a top and lesser chord or flange fabricated from dimensional lumber with a webbing in-betwixt made from oriented strand board (OSB) (or, latterly, steel mesh forms which allow passage of services without cutting). The webbing can exist removed upward to certain sizes or shapes according to the manufacturer'south or engineer's specifications, only for small holes, wooden I-joists come with "knockouts", which are perforated, pre-cutting areas where holes tin exist made easily, typically without applied science approval. When large holes are needed, they can typically be fabricated in the webbing only and only in the center third of the span; the elevation and bottom chords lose their integrity if cutting. Sizes and shapes of the hole, and typically the placing of a hole itself, must exist approved by an engineer prior to the cutting of the hole and in many areas, a sheet showing the calculations made by the engineer must be provided to the building inspection regime before the hole will be canonical. Some I-joists are fabricated with W-style webbing similar a truss to eliminate cutting and to allow ductwork to laissez passer through.

Freshly cut logs showing sap running from beneath bark
Finger-jointed lumber – solid dimensional lumber lengths typically are express to lengths of 22 to 24 feet, but can exist made longer past the technique of "finger-jointing" by using small solid pieces, usually 18 to 24 inches long, and joining them together using finger joints and glue to produce lengths that can exist upwards to 36 feet long in 2×6 size. Finger-jointing as well is predominant in precut wall studs. It is also an affordable culling for non-structural hardwood that volition exist painted (staining would leave the finger-joints visible). Care is taken during structure to avoid nailing direct into a glued joint every bit stud breakage tin can occur.
Glulam beams – created from ii×four or 2×vi stock by gluing the faces together to create beams such as 4×12 or 6×16. As such, a beam acts every bit one larger slice of lumber – thus eliminating the need to harvest larger, older trees for the same size beam.
Manufactured trusses – trusses are used in home construction as a pre-fabricated replacement for roof rafters and ceiling joists (stick-framing). It is seen every bit an easier installation and a better solution for supporting roofs than the utilize of dimensional lumber's struts and purlins every bit bracing. In the southern U.S. and elsewhere, stick-framing with dimensional lumber roof support is still predominant. The main drawbacks of trusses are reduced attic space, time required for technology and ordering, and a price higher than the dimensional lumber needed if the aforementioned projection were conventionally framed. The advantages are significantly reduced labor costs (installation is faster than conventional framing), consistency, and overall schedule savings.

Various pieces and cuts [edit]

Square and rectangular forms: Plank, slat, crossbar, board, board, strapping (typically 3⁄4 in × 1+ i⁄2 in), cant (A partially sawn log such every bit sawn on two sides or squared to a large size and later resawn into lumber. A flitch is a type of cant with wane on one or both sides). Diverse pieces are also known by their uses such as mail, axle, (girt), stud, rafter, joist, sill plate, wall plate.
Rod forms: pole, (dowel), stick (staff, baton)

Timber piles [edit]

In the United States, pilings are mainly cutting from southern yellow pines and Douglas firs. Treated pilings are bachelor in Chromated copper arsenate retentions of 0.60, 0.fourscore and two.50 pounds per cubic human foot (9.6, 12.8 and xl.0 kg/mⁱⁱⁱ) if treatment is required.

Historical Chinese construction [edit]

Under the prescription of the Method of Structure (營造法式) issued by the Song dynasty government in the early 12th century, timbers were standardized to eight cross-sectional dimensions.^[23] Regardless of the actual dimensions of the timber, the ratio betwixt width and height was maintained at one:ane.5. Units are in Song Dynasty inches (31.2 mm).

Class	summit	width	uses
1st	9	6	nifty halls 11 or nine trophy wide
second	8.25	5.five	great halls 7 or 5 bays broad
3rd	seven.5	5	great halls 5 or iii bays wide or halls 7 or 5 bays wide
4th	7.2	four.8	great halls 3 bays broad or halls five bays wide
5th	half dozen.6	4.four	dandy halls 3 small trophy wide or halls three large bays wide
6th	6	4	pagodas and small halls
7th	five.25	3.two	pagodas and small great halls
eighth	4.five	iii	small pagodas and ceilings

Timber smaller than the 8th class were chosen "unclassed" (等外). The width of a timber is referred to every bit i "timber" (材), and the dimensions of other structural components were quoted in multiples of "timber"; thus, as the width of the actual timber varied, the dimensions of other components were easily calculated, without resorting to specific figures for each scale. The dimensions of timbers in like applications evidence a gradual diminution from the Sui Dyansty (580–618) to the modernistic era; a 1st class timber during the Sui was reconstructed every bit 15×10 (Sui Dynasty inches, or 29.4 mm).^[24]

Defects in lumber [edit]

Defects occurring in lumber are grouped into the following four divisions:

Conversion [edit]

During the process of converting timber to commercial grade the following defects may occur:

Chip mark: this defect is indicated past the marks or signs placed by chips on the finished surface of timber
Diagonal grain: improper sawing of timber
Torn grain: when a small dent is made on the finished surface due to falling of some tool
Wane: presence of original rounded surface in the finished product

Defects due to fungi and animals [edit]

Fungi assault timber when these conditions are all present:

The timber moisture content is in a higher place 25% on a dry-weight basis
The environment is sufficiently warm
Oxygen (O₂) is nowadays

Wood with less than 25% moisture (dry weight ground) can remain gratuitous of decay for centuries. Similarly, woods submerged in water may not be attacked by fungi if the amount of oxygen is inadequate.

Fungi timber defects:

Blue stain
Brown rot
Dry out rot
Heart rot
Sap stain
Wet rot
White rot

Post-obit are the insects and molluscs which are usually responsible for the disuse of timber:

Woodboring beetles
Marine borers (Barnea similis)
Teredos (Teredo navalis)
Termites
Carpenter ants
Carpenter bees

Natural forces [edit]

There are two chief natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber: abnormal growth and rupture of tissues. Rupture of tissue includes cracks or splits in the woods chosen "shakes". "Ring milk shake", "current of air shake", or "ring failure" is when the wood grain separates around the growth rings either while standing or during felling. Shakes may reduce the forcefulness of a timber and the appearance thus reduce lumber grade and may capture wet, promoting decay. Eastern hemlock is known for having ring shake.^[25] A "cheque" is a crack on the surface of the wood caused by the exterior of a timber shrinking equally it seasons. Checks may extend to the pith and follow the grain. Like shakes, checks can concur water promoting rot. A "split" goes all the way through a timber. Checks and splits occur more than often at the ends of lumber because of the more rapid drying in these locations.^[25]

Seasoning [edit]

The seasoning of lumber is typically either kiln- or air-dried. Defects due to seasoning are the main cause of splits, bowing and honeycombing. Seasoning is the process of drying timber to remove the jump moisture contained in the walls of the wood cells to produce seasoned timber.^[26]

Durability and service life [edit]

Under proper conditions, woods provides fantabulous, lasting performance. Even so, it likewise faces several potential threats to service life, including fungal activity and insect harm – which tin can be avoided in numerous means. Section 2304.xi of the International Building Lawmaking addresses protection against decay and termites. This department provides requirements for non-residential structure applications, such equally wood used above ground (east.k., for framing, decks, stairs, etc.), as well every bit other applications.

In that location are 4 recommended methods to protect wood-frame structures against durability hazards and thus provide maximum service life for the building. All require proper design and construction:

Controlling moisture using design techniques to avoid decay
Providing effective control of termites and other insects
Using durable materials such equally force per unit area-treated or naturally durable species of woods where appropriate
Providing quality assurance during blueprint and construction and throughout the edifice's service life using advisable maintenance practices

Moisture control [edit]

Woods is a hygroscopic textile, which means it naturally absorbs and releases water to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment. The moisture content of woods is measured past the weight of water equally a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the woods fiber. The fundamental to controlling decay is controlling moisture. Once decay fungi are established, the minimum moisture content for disuse to propagate is 22 to 24 percentage, so building experts recommend 19 percent equally the maximum rubber wet content for untreated woods in service. H2o by itself does not harm the wood, but rather, wood with consistently loftier moisture content enables fungal organisms to grow.

The primary objective when addressing moisture loads is to go on water from inbound the building envelope in the outset place and to rest the wet content within the edifice itself. Wet control by ways of accepted design and construction details is a elementary and practical method of protecting a wood-frame building against decay. For applications with a high risk of staying wet, designers specify durable materials such as naturally decay-resistant species or wood that has been treated with preservatives. Cladding, shingles, sill plates and exposed timbers or glulam beams are examples of potential applications for treated wood.

Controlling termites and other insects [edit]

For buildings in termite zones, basic protection practices addressed in current edifice codes include (but are not limited to) the post-obit:

Grading the building site away from the foundation to provide proper drainage
Roofing exposed ground in any crawl spaces with 6-mil polyethylene film and maintaining at least 12 to 18 inches (300 to 460 mm) of clearance between the footing and the lesser of framing members to a higher place (12 inches to beams or girders, xviii inches to joists or plank flooring members)
Supporting post columns by physical piers and so that there is at least vi inches (150 mm) of clear space between the wood and exposed earth
Installing wood framing and sheathing in exterior walls at least eight inches above exposed globe; locating siding at least six inches from the finished grade
Where appropriate, ventilating crawl spaces according to local building codes
Removing building material scraps from the job site before backfilling.
If allowed past local regulation, treating the soil around the foundation with an approved termiticide to provide protection confronting subterranean termites

Preservatives [edit]

Special fasteners are used with treated lumber because of the corrosive chemicals used in its preservation process.

To avoid decay and termite infestation, untreated wood is separated from the ground and other sources of wet. These separations are required by many building codes and are considered necessary to maintain wood elements in permanent structures at a rubber moisture content for disuse protection. When it is not possible to carve up forest from the sources of wet, designers often rely on preservative-treated wood.^[27]

Forest can be treated with a preservative that improves service life nether severe conditions without altering its basic characteristics. It can also be pressure-impregnated with fire-retardant chemicals that improve its performance in a fire.^[28] Ane of the early treatments to "fireproof lumber", which retard fires, was developed in 1936 by the Protexol Corporation, in which lumber is heavily treated with salt.^[29] Wood does not deteriorate simply because information technology gets wet. When wood breaks down, it is considering an organism is eating it. Preservatives piece of work by making the nutrient source inedible to these organisms. Properly preservative-treated wood tin have v to 10 times the service life of untreated wood. Preserved wood is used well-nigh oft for railroad ties, utility poles, marine piles, decks, fences and other outdoor applications. Diverse treatment methods and types of chemicals are available, depending on the attributes required in the particular application and the level of protection needed.^[30]

There are 2 basic methods of treating: with and without pressure. Non-pressure methods are the application of preservatives by brushing, spraying, or dipping the piece to be treated. Deeper, more thorough penetration is achieved past driving the preservative into the wood cells with pressure. Various combinations of pressure level and vacuum are used to forcefulness adequate levels of chemic into the wood. Force per unit area-treating preservatives consist of chemicals carried in a solvent. Chromated copper arsenate, once the most commonly used wood preservative in North America began being phased out of most residential applications in 2004. Replacing information technology are amine copper quat and copper azole.

All woods preservatives used in the United states of america and Canada are registered and regularly re-examined for safety past the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Health Canada's Pest Management and Regulatory Bureau, respectively.^[30]

Timber framing [edit]

Timber framing is a mode of construction that uses heavier framing elements than modern stick framing, which uses dimensional lumber. The timbers originally were tree boles squared with a broadaxe or adze and joined together with joinery without nails. Mod timber framing has been growing in popularity in the United States since the 1970s.^[31]

Environmental effects of lumber [edit]

Green building minimizes the touch on or "ecology footprint" of a building. Wood is a major edifice material that is renewable and replenishable in a continuous bike.^[xxx] Studies show manufacturing forest uses less energy and results in less air and water pollution than steel and concrete.^[32] Notwithstanding, demand for lumber is blamed for deforestation.^[33]

Residuum wood [edit]

The conversion from coal to biomass power is a growing trend in the United states.^[34]

The United Kingdom, Uzbekistan, Republic of kazakhstan, Australia, Fiji, Madagascar, Mongolia, Russia, Kingdom of denmark, Switzerland, and Eswatini governments all back up an increased role for energy derived from biomass, which are organic materials available on a renewable ground and include residues and/or byproducts of the logging, saw milling and paper-making processes. In detail, they view information technology as a way to lower greenhouse gas emissions by reducing the consumption of oil and gas while supporting the growth of forestry, agriculture and rural economies. Studies by the U.S. regime have found the land's combined forest and agriculture land resources have the power to sustainably supply more than ane-third of its current petroleum consumption.^[35]

Biomass is already an important source of energy for the North American forest products industry. It is mutual for companies to have cogeneration facilities, also known as combined heat and power, which convert some of the biomass that results from wood and paper manufacturing to electrical and thermal free energy in the form of steam. The electricity is used to, amongst other things, dry lumber and supply rut to the dryers used in paper-making.

Environmental impacts [edit]

Lumber is a sustainable and environmentally friendly construction material that could replace traditional edifice materials (e.1000. concrete and steel). Its structural operation, capacity to fixate CO₂ and low energy demand during the manufacturing process make lumber an interesting material.

Substituting lumber for concrete or steel avoids the carbon emissions of those materials. Cement and physical manufacture is responsible for effectually 8% of global GHG emissions while the fe and steel industry is responsible for another 5% (half a ton of CO₂ is emitted to manufacture a ton of concrete; two tons of CO₂ are emitted in the industry of a ton of steel).^[36]

Advantages of lumber:

Fire performance: In the example of burn, the outer layer of mass timber will tend to char in a predictable style that finer self-extinguishes and shields the interior, allowing it to retain structural integrity for several hours, even in an intense burn down.
Reduction of carbon emissions: Building materials and construction brand up eleven% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Though the exact amount volition depend on tree species, forestry practices, transportation costs, and several other factors, that ane cubic meter of lumber sequesters roughly ane tonne of CO₂.^[37]
Natural insulation: lumber is a natural insulator which makes it especially skillful for windows and doors.
Less construction time, labor costs, and waste: it is easy to industry prefabricated lumber, from which pieces tin can exist assembled simultaneously (with relatively fiddling labor). This reduces fabric waste material, avoids massive on-site inventory, and minimizes on-site disruption. According to the softwood lumber manufacture, "Mass timber buildings are roughly 25% faster to construct than physical buildings and require xc% less construction traffic".^[38]

End-of-Life [edit]

An EPA study shows the typical Finish-of-Life scenario for wood waste from municipal solid waste (MSW), forest packaging, and other miscellaneous wood products in the U.s.a.. Based on the 2018 data, about 67% of forest waste was landfilled, 16% incinerated with energy recovery, and 17% recycled.^[39]

A study conducted by Edinburgh Napier University demonstrated the proportional waste product stream of recovered lumber in the UK shows that timber from municipal solid waste and packaging waste brand up xiii and 26% of waste product collected. Structure and demolition waste brand upwardly the biggest bulk of waste collectively at 52%, with the remaining ten% coming from industry.^[40]

Lumber in the circular economy [edit]

The Ellen MacArthur Foundation defines the round economy as: "based on the principles of designing out waste and pollution, keeping products and materials in use, and regenerating natural systems."

The circular economy can exist considered as a model that aims to eliminate waste past targeting materials, and products at their maximum value of utility and time. In short, it is a whole new model of production and consumption that ensures sustainable evolution over time. Information technology is related to the reuse of materials, components, and products over a longer life cycle.

Wood is among the most demanding materials which makes information technology of import to come with a model of the round economy. The lumber manufacture creates a lot of waste material, specially in its manufacturing procedure. From log debarking to finished products, there are several stages of processing that generate a considerable volume of waste, which includes solid forest waste, harmful gases, and residual water.^[41] Therefore it is important to identify and apply measures to reduce environmental contagion, giving a financial render to the industries (e.g., selling the waste to wood chippings manufacturers) and maintaining a healthy human relationship betwixt the surround and industries.

Wood waste tin be recycled at its EoL to brand new products. Recycled chips can exist used to make wood panels, which is beneficial for both the environment and manufacture. Such do reduces the use of virgin raw materials, eliminating emissions that would have otherwise been emitted in its manufacturing.

One of the studies conducted in Hong Kong ^[41] was washed using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The study aimed to assess and compare the environmental impacts of wood waste management from building construction activities using different alternative direction scenarios in Hong Kong. Despite various advantages of lumber and its waste product, the contribution to the study of the circular economy of lumber is still very small. Some areas where improvements can be made to better the circularity of lumber is as follows:

Start, regulations to support recycled lumber use. For example, establishing grading standards and enforcing penalties for improper disposal, specially in sectors that produce big quantities of forest waste, such equally the construction and demolition sector.
2nd, creating a stronger supply force. This can be achieved by improving demolition protocol and applied science and enhancing the secondary raw materials market through circular business models.
Tertiary, increment demand by introducing incentives to the structure sector and new homeowners to apply recycled lumber. This tin can be in the form of reduced taxes for the structure of the new build.

Lumber equally "secondary raw material" [edit]

The term secondary raw material denotes waste material that has been recycled and injected dorsum into employ as productive fabric. Lumber has a high potential to exist used as a secondary raw textile at diverse stages, as listed below:

Recovery of branches and leaves for apply as fertilisers:

Timber undergo multiple processing stages before lumber of desired shapes, size, and standards are achieved for commercial use. The process generates a lot of waste which in almost cases is disregarded. Simply existence an organic waste, the positive aspect of such waste is that it tin be used as a fertiliser or to protect the soil in severe weather conditions.

Recovery of woods chips for thermal energy generation:

Waste generated during the manufacturing of lumber products tin can be used to produce thermal free energy. Lumber products after their stop-of-life tin can exist downcycled into chips and exist used as biomass to produce thermal energy. Information technology is very beneficial for industries that need thermal energy.

Circular economic system practices offering effective solutions concerning waste. It targets its unnecessary generation through waste reduction, reuse, and recycling. At that place is no articulate explicit testify of circular economy in the woods panel industry. Even so, based on the circular economy concept and its characteristics, there are opportunities present in the wood panel industry from the raw material extraction phase to its finish-of-life. Therefore, at that place lies a gap yet to exist explored.^[41]

Notes [edit]

^ Considering working expensive hardwoods is far more than hard and plush, and because an odd width might well be conserved and be of apply in making such surfaces as a cabinet side or tabletop joined from many smaller widths, the industry generally just does minimal processing, preserving every bit much lath width as is practicable. This leaves culling and width decisions totally in the hands of the craftsman edifice cabinets or furniture with the boards.
^ In quarter sawn thicknesses, meaning the thickness and width dimensions as they come out of the sawmills table. Because lengths vary most with temperature, hardwoods boards in the US frequently accept a bit of extra length.
^ pocket-size set of specified lengths: Fixed-length hardwood boards in the U.s.a. are about common in 4–half dozen ft (i.two–1.viii 1000) lengths, with a good representation of 8 ft (2.four grand) lengths in a diverseness of widths, and a few widths with occasional dimensional sizes to 12 ft (3.vii m) lengths. Oftentimes the longer sizes need exist special ordered.
^ Fixed board lengths do non employ in all countries; for instance, in Australia and the United States, many hardwood boards are sold to timber yards in packs with a common width contour (dimensions) but not necessarily consisting of boards of identical lengths.

References [edit]

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^ "Hardwood vs Softwood – Difference and Comparing". Diffen.
^ "Conceptual Reference Database for Edifice Envelope Research". Archived from the original on 2008-02-23. Retrieved 2008-03-28 .
^ "Recycling and Deregulation: Opportunities for Market Development" Resources Recycling, September 1996
^ "ASTM D6108 – 09 Standard Test Method for Compressive Backdrop of Plastic Lumber and Shapes" ASTM Committee D20.twenty on Plastic Lumber
^ "SAFPLANK Interlocking Decking System" Archived 2013-04-26 at the Wayback Machine Strongwell.com
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^ Smith, Fifty. W. and 50. W. Wood (1964). "History of yard lumber size standards" (PDF). USDA Forest Service, Forest Production Laboratory.
^ "American Lumber Standard Committee: History". www.alsc.org.
^ "Structural Properties and Functioning" (PDF). woodworks.org. WoodWorks. Retrieved May 7, 2017.
^ "National Lumber Grades Authority (Canada)". Archived from the original on 2011-08-11.
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^ Ridley-Ellis, Dan; Stapel, Peter; Baño, Vanesa (1 May 2016). "Strength grading of sawn timber in Europe: an caption for engineers and researchers" (PDF). European Journal of Wood and Wood Products. 74 (3): 291–306. doi:10.1007/s00107-016-1034-1. S2CID 18860384.
^ "What is TR26?". Centre for Forest Science & Technology. 1 December 2015.
^ Ridley-Ellis, Dan; Gil-Moreno, David; Harte, Annette M. (19 March 2022). "Strength grading of timber in the UK and Ireland in 2021". International Wood Products Journal: 1–x. doi:10.1080/20426445.2022.2050549. ISSN 2042-6445. S2CID 247578984.
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^ "African and S American sawn timber". www.fordaq.com. Fordaq S.A., The Timber Network. Retrieved May vii, 2017.
^ "Austin Free energy folio describing engineered structural lumber". Archived from the original on 2006-08-22. Retrieved 2006-09-10 .
^ 李, 誡 (1103). 營造法式. Red china: Vocal Government. Retrieved May 8, 2016.
^ 王, 貴祥. "关于隋唐洛阳宫乾阳殿与乾元殿的平面_结构与形式之探讨". 中國建築史論匯刊. three: 116.
^ ^a ^b U. S. Department of Agriculture. "Milk shake", The Encyclopedia of Forest. New York: Skyhorse Pub., 2007. Print.
^ karenkoenig (2016-04-04). "Understanding & working with wood defects". Woodworking Network . Retrieved 2018-03-12 .
^ "WoodWorks Durability and Service Life" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-05. Retrieved 2011-06-01 .
^ "Forest That Fights." Popular Sciences, March 1944, p. 59.
^ "Lumber is Made Fireproof past Salt Treatment" Popular Mechanics, April 1936 bottom-left p. 560
^ ^a ^b ^c "Virtually Treated Forest". CWC . Retrieved May vii, 2017.
^ Roy, Robert L. Timber framing for the rest of us. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers, 2004. half-dozen. Print. ISBN 0865715084
^ Lippke, B., E. Oneil, R. Harrison, Chiliad. Skog, L. Gustavsson, and R. Sathre. 2011. Life cycle impacts of wood management and wood utilization on carbon mitigation: knowns and unknowns. Carbon Direction two(3): 303–33. Archived 2011-11-ten at the Wayback Automobile
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^ "EERE News: EERE Network News".
^ U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Section of Energy Biomass equally a Feedstock for a Bioenergy and Bioproducts Manufacture: The Technical Feasibility of a Billion-Ton Almanac Supply, 2005 Executive Summary Archived 2008-08-25 at the Wayback Machine
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^ Puettmann, Maureen; Sinha, Arijit; Ganguly, Indroneil (2019-09-01). "Life Cycle Energy and Ecology Impacts of Cross Laminated Timber Made with Littoral Douglas-fir". Journal of Dark-green Building. 14 (4): 17–33. doi:ten.3992/1943-4618.14.iv.17. ISSN 1552-6100. S2CID 214201061.
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^ EPA'southward study on Wood Waste
^ Insights in Timber Recycling and Sabotage by Marlene Cramer
^ ^a ^b ^c de Carvalho Araújo, Cristiane Karyn; Salvador, Rodrigo; Moro Piekarski, Cassiano; Sokulski, Carla Cristiane; de Francisco, Antonio Carlos; de Carvalho Araújo Camargo, Sâmique Kyene (January 2019). "Circular Economy Practices on Woods Panels: A Bibliographic Analysis". Sustainability. 11 (4): 1057. doi:10.3390/su11041057.

External links [edit]

Look upwards lumber or timber in Wiktionary, the free lexicon.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Timber.

National Hardwood Lumber Association (Rules for Grading Hardwood Lumber – Inspector Training Schoolhouse)
Timber Development Clan of NSW – Australia
TDA: Timber Decking Clan – United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland
TRADA: Timber Research And Development Association
The Woods Products Laboratory. U.S. main forest products inquiry lab. Madison, WI (E)
WCTE, World Briefing on Timber Engineering　June twenty–24, 2010, Riva del Garda, Trentino, Italy
Forest Products data in Canada since 1990

geetuouly.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumber